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Proto-Indo-European religion is not directly attested, but reconstruction has been attempted based on the existence of similarities among the deities, religious practices and mythologies of the Indo-European peoples. The hypothesized reconstructions below are based on linguistic evidence using the comparative method. Archaeological evidence is difficult to match to any specific culture in the period of early Indo-European culture in the Chalcolithic. Other approaches to Indo-European mythology are possible, most notably the trifunctional hypothesis of Georges Dumézil.〔''Mythe et Épopée I, II, III'', by G. Dumézil, Gallimard, 1995.〕 ==Pantheon== Linguists are able to reconstruct the names of some deities in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) from many types of sources. Some of the proposed deity names are more readily accepted among scholars than others.〔In order to present a consistent notation, the reconstructed forms used here are cited from . For further explanation of the laryngeals – The term for "a god" was '' *deiwos'', reflected in Hittite, ''sius''; Latin, deus, Sanskrit deva; Avestan, daeva (later, Persian, ''divs''); Welsh duw; Irish ''dia'', Lithuanian, ''Dievas''; Latvian, ''Dievs''.〔''Indo-European '' *Deiwos'' and Related Words'' by Grace Sturtevant Hopkins (''Language'' Dissertations published by the Linguistic Society of America, Number XII, December 1932)〕 * '' *Dyēus Ph2tēr'' (literally "sky father") is the god of the day-lit sky and the chief god of the Indo-European pantheon. The name survives in Greek Zeus with a vocative form ''Zeu pater''; Latin Jūpiter (from the archaic Latin ''Iovis pater''; Diēspiter), Sanskrit Dyáus Pitā, and Illyrian Dei-pátrous. * '' *Plth2wih2'' (literally "the broad one") is reconstructed as ''Plenty'', a goddess of wide flat lands and the rivers that meander across them. Forms include Hittite Lelwani, a goddess of the underworld, "the pourer", and Sanskrit Prithvi. * '' *Perkwunos'', known as "the striker", is reconstructed from Sanskrit Parjanya, Prussian Perkuns, Lithuanian Perkūnas, Latvian Pērkons, Slavic Perun, and Norse Fjörgyn. Fjörgyn was replaced by Thor among the Germanic-speaking peoples. The Celtic hammer god Sucellus (also cf. Taranis "Thunderer") is of the same character, but with an unrelated name. * '' *H2eus(os)'', is believed to have been the goddess of dawn, continued in Greek mythology as Eos, in Rome as Aurora, in Vedic as Ushas, in Lithuanian mythology as Aušra 'dawn' or Auštaras (Auštra) 'the god (goddess) of the northeast wind', Latvian Auseklis, the morning star (Lithuanian Aušrinė, 'morning star'); Ausera, and Ausrina, goddesses of dawn or of the planet Venus; Gallic Esus, a god of hearths; Slavic, Iaro, a god of summer. The form Arap Ushas appears in Albanian folklore, but is a name of the Moon. See also the names for the Sun which follow. An extension of the name may have been '' *H2eust(e)ro'', but see also the form '' *as-t-r'', with intrusive -t- (s and r ) in northern dialects".〔; 〕 Anatolian dialects: Estan, Istanus, Istara; Greek, Hestia, goddess of the hearth; Latin Vesta, goddess of the hearth; in Armenian as Astghik, a star goddess; possibly also in Germanic mythology as Ēostre or Ostara; and Baltic, Austija. * '' *PriHeh2'', is reconstructed (Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 208) as "beloved, friend" (Sanskrit ''priya''), the love goddess. Other forms may include Old Norse Freyja and Frigg, Slavic ''priye'', and Hittite ''puru''. * '' *Deh2nu-'' 'River goddess' is reconstructed () from Sanskrit Danu, Irish Danu; Welsh Dôn, and a masc. form Ossetic Donbettys. The name has been connected with the Dan rivers which run into the Black Sea (Dnieper, Dniester, Don, and Danube) and other river names in Celtic areas. * '' *Welnos'', is reconstructed as a god of cattle from Slavic Veles, and Lithuanian Velnias (in archaic Lithuanian vėlės means 'shades' or 'spirits of the departed'), "protector of flocks"; Velns in Latvian; as well as Old Norse Ullr, and Old English Wuldor, and even the Elysian fields in Greek myth and ritual (according to Jaan Puhvel). There may be a god of cattle in the northern lands, but the argument is very thin. These names were also once thought to be connected to Sanskrit Varuna and Greek Ouranos, for example by Max Muller (''Comparative Mythology'' p. 84), but this is now rejected on linguistic grounds, ("the etymology is disputed" Shapiro, JIES 10, 1&2, p. 155〔The Journal of Indo-European Studies, publ. by JIES, Washington, DC., 1973 and continuing〕). * Divine Twins: There are several sets, which may or may not be related. * *Analysis of different Indo-European tales indicate the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed there were two progenitors of mankind: *''Manu-'' ("Man"; Indic Manu; Germanic Mannus) and *''Yemo-'' ("Twin"; Indic Yama; Germanic Ymir), his twin brother. Cognates of this set of twins appear as the first mortals, or the first gods to die, sometimes becoming the ancestors of everyone and/or king(s) of the dead.〔Mallory. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans''. 1987. p. 140.〕〔Lincoln, Bruce. ''Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology & Practice''. 1991〕 * * The Sun and Moon, as discussed below. * * Horse Twins, usually have a name that means 'horse' '' *ekwa-'', but the names are not always cognate, because there is no lexical set (Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 432). They are always male and usually have a horse form, or sometimes, one is a horse and the other is a boy. They are brothers of the Sun Maiden or Dawn goddess, sons of the Sky god, continued in Sanskrit Ashvins and Lithuanian Ašvieniai, identical to Latvian Dieva deli. Other horse twins are: Greek, Dioskouroi (Polydeukes and Kastor); borrowed into Latin as Castor and Pollux; Irish, the twins of Macha; Old English, Hengist and Horsa (both words mean 'stallion'), and possibly Old Norse Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse born of Loki; Slavic Lel and Polel; possibly Christianized in Albanian as Sts. Flori and Lori. The horse twins may be based on the morning and evening star (the planet Venus) and they often have stories about them in which they "accompany" the Sun goddess, because of the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun (JIES 10, 1&2, pp. 137–166, Michael Shapiro, who references D. Ward, ''The Divine Twins,'' Folklore Studies, No. 19, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, 1968). * A water or sea god is reconstructed (Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 438) as '' *H2epom Nepots'' 'grandson/nephew of waters' from Avestan and Vedic Apam Napat, and as '' *neptonos'' from Celtic Nechtan, Etruscan Nethuns, and Latin Neptune. This god may be related to the Germanic water spirit, the Nix.〔Jaan Puhvel, ''Analecta Indoeuropaea,'' (a collection of articles), publ. by Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft, Innsbruck, 1981〕 Similarly, most major Lithuanian rivers begin in ne- (e.g. Nemunas, Neris, Nevėžis). Poseidon fulfills the same role in Greek mythology, but although the etymology of his name is highly arguable, it is certainly not cognate to Apam Napat. * The Sun and Moon are often seen as the twin children of various deities, but in fact the sun and moon were deified several times and are often found in competing forms within the same language. The usual scheme is that one of these celestial deities is male and the other female, though the exact gender of the Sun or Moon tends to vary among subsequent Indo-European mythologies. Here are two of the most common PIE forms: * * '' *Seh2ul'' with a genitive form '' *Sh2-en-s,'' Sun, appears as Sanskrit Surya, Avestan Hvara; Greek Helios, Latin Sol, Germanic *Sowilo (Old Norse Sól; Old English Sigel and Sunna, modern English Sun), Slavic Solntse, Lithuanian Saulė, Latvian Saule, Albanian Diell.〔''Encyclopedia of IE Culture'', p. 556.〕 The original Indo-European solar deity appears to have been female,〔Dexter, Miriam Robbins. Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon. Mankind Quarterly 25:1 & 2 (Fall/Winter, 1984), pp. 137–144.〕 a characteristic not only supported by the higher number of sun goddesses in subsequent derivations (feminine Sól, Saule, Sulis, Solntse—not directly attested as a goddess, but feminine in gender—Étaín, Grían, Aimend, Áine and Catha versus masculine Helios, Surya, Savitr, Usil and Sol; Hvare-khshaeta is of neutral gender), but also by vestiges in mythologies with male solar deities (Usil in etruscan art is depicted occasionally as a goddess, while solar characteristics in Athena and Helen of Troy still remain in Greek mythology). * * '' *Meh1not'' Moon, gives Avestan, Mah; Greek Selene (unrelated), although they also use a form Mene; Latin, Luna, later Diana (unrelated), ON Mani, Old English Mona; Slavic Myesyats; Lithuanian, *Meno, or Mėnuo (Mėnulis); Latvian Meness; Roman Minerva. In Albanian, Hane is the name of Monday, but this is not related. (''Encyclopedia of IE Culture,'' p. 385, gives the forms but does not have an entry for a moon goddess.) The original Indo-European lunar deity appears to have been masculine,〔 with feminine lunar deities like Selene, Minerva and Luna being a development exclusive to the eastern Mediterranean. Even in these traditions, remnants of male lunar deities, like Menelaus, remain. * '' *Peh2uson'' is reconstructed (Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 434) as a pastoral god, based on the Greek god Pan, the Roman god Faunus and the Fauns, and Vedic Pashupati, and Pushan. See also Pax. * There may have been a set of nature spirits or gods akin to the Greek Satyrs, the Celtic god Cernunnos and the Dusii, Slavic Veles and the Leszi, the Germanic Woodwose, elves and dwarves. There may also have been a female cognate akin to the Greco-Roman nymphs, Slavic vilas, the Huldra of Germanic folklore, and the Hindu Apsaras. * It is also likely that they had three fate goddesses; see the Norns in Norse mythology, Moirai in Greek mythology, Sudjenice of Slavic folklore, Ursitoare in Folklore of Romania and Deivės Valdytojos in Lithuanian mythology. Celtic religion is also rife with triple goddesses, such as the Gaulish Matrones and the Morrigan of Ireland, and sometimes triplicate gods as well, but they are not always associated with fate. ''See also Triple deities.'' A fuller treatment of the subject of the Indo-European Pantheon would not merely list the cognate names but describe additional correspondences in the "family relationships", festival dates, associated myths (but see Mythology section) and special powers. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Proto-Indo-European religion」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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